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Anatolia is the
Asiatic portion of contemporary Turkey, extending from the Bosporus
and Aegean coast eastward to the borders of the Soviet Union, Iran,
and Iraq. The Greeks and Romans called western Anatolia "Asia." Later
the name "Asia Minor," or "Little Asia," was used to distinguish
Anatolia from the land mass of the greater Asian continent.
Already
in late prehistoric times, occupation by cave dwellers in various
subregions set the stage for Anatolia's emergence as a center of the
agricultural revolution identified with the NEOLITHIC PERIOD. Villages
and towns of this era appear at Siirt, Diyarbaker, and Urfa (southeastern
Anatolia); Tarsus and Mersin in the Cicilian Plain; the Amuq Plain; at
CATAL HUYUK (southeast of Konya); Hacilar (southwestern Anatolia); and
Suberde (southwest of Konya). The 13-ha (32-acre) site at Catal Huyuk
(c. 7000-5600 BC) has produced outstanding artifacts revealing it as a
metalworking, specialized-craft, and religious center. Individual city-states
abound during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze ages (3d to early 2d
millennium BC). Between 1940 and 1780 BC, Assyrian merchants from
Mesopotamia peacefully established a score of trading colonies in
central and eastern Anatolian cities, thereby drawing the region into
wider politico-economic focus.
The Hittites
Enduring political
unification of Anatolia was achieved by the HITTITES, an Indo-European
confederation that subdued the kingdoms of the central plateau about
1750 BC. They established the Old Hittite Kingdom, eventually ruling
from BOGAZKOY (Hattusa). The confederation, whose chief members were
Luwians, Palaites, and Neshites, entered Anatolia from Europe well
before 2000 BC. For the first century and a half, the Old Hittite
Kingdom was internally strong and militarily secure. Under Hattusilis
I (fl. c. 1560 BC) the Hittite kingdom began to expand into northwest
Syria. His adopted son, Mursilis I (fl. c. 1620 BC), raided down the
Euphrates Valley and defeated Babylon (c. 1600 BC). Thereafter the
kingdom struggled under a series of internal coups and royal
assassinations until stability was reestablished by Telepinus I (c.
1525 BC). About 70 years later came the second major phase of Hittite
political and military power.
The
Hittite Empire period was inaugurated by Tudhaliyas II (fl. c. 1460 BC),
but its chief architect was Suppiluliumas I (r. c. 1380-1346 BC), who
reconquered much of central Anatolia and dominated Syria and the state
of Mitanni in eastern Anatolia. Hittite successes made them a major
player in the international intrigues of the day and brought them into
deadly rivalry with the Egyptian empire to the south for control of
Syria and Palestine. A major battle between the Hittites under
Muwattalis (r. c. 1315-1296 BC) and the Egyptian king Rameses II was
fought at Kadesh on the Orontes River c. 1300 BC, victory going to the
Hittites. A peace treaty between the two powers was concluded between
RAMESES II and Hattusilis III (r. c. 1289-1265). Thereafter, serious
disruptions occurred in Anatolia, and the Hittite vassals and allies
in the west attempted to gain independence. Finally, invasions of SEA
PEOPLES from the Aegean and attacks by mountainous Gashga peoples
destroyed Hittite power in Anatolia (c. 1200 BC).
Political Fragmentation
After
the Hittite state's collapse, Anatolia had no political centrality or
cohesion for nearly half a millennium. Archaeological evidence
suggests the reestablishment of small principalities in the area.
Textual evidence is sparse. Assyrian records recount an invasion (c.
1160) of Assyria's western borders by a large force of "Mushki,"
perhaps ancestors of the later Phrygians. In reaction, Assyrian armies
sought first to move into southeastern Anatolia, and thereafter beyond
the Euphrates, where they encountered the Neo-Hittite (Syro-Hittite)
kingdoms, some 16 of which occupied the region between the Taurus
Mountains and the Euphrates. Monuments from these states reveal a
dialect written in "Hittite hieroglyphics," which suggests a clear
cultural and population connection with Hittite Anatolia. Incursions
of Aramaen nomads into Syria, and inevitable Assyrian reaction to
these, spelled the demise of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms as independent
states by the 8th century BC.
In
mountainous eastern Anatolia the state of URARTU, in its turn, was
defeated by the Syrians in 743 BC. In western Anatolia, Phrygians had
arrived from southeastern Europe perhaps earlier than the Trojan War
(c. 1190 BC). By the 8th century BC they had created a state (PHRYGIA)
with its capital at GORDION, southwest of modern Ankara. On Anatolia's
western coast, Lycians, Carians, and Mysians, probably descendants of
peoples known to the classical Hittites, inhabited defined areas. By
the 6th century BC, LYDIA had emerged as the region's dominant state.
The fall of Assyria in 612 BC, and of Babylon in 539 BC, left the
field open to the Persians who, after Cyrus the Great's victory over
CROESUS of Lydia in 546 BC, incorporated Anatolia into their empire.
After
the Persians crushed rebellious Ionian (Greek) cities in western
Anatolia (494 BC), they launched two unsuccessful invasions of Greece.
During the 5th and 4th centuries BC, Persia meddled in Greek affairs
from its bases in Anatolia. The rise of PHILIP II of Macedonia and his
son, ALEXANDER THE GREAT, (mid-4th century BC), initiated a victorious
Pan-Hellenic crusade that destroyed the Persian Empire. After
Alexander's death a number of independent states emerged in Anatolia--among
them BITHYNIA, CAPPADOCIA, PERGAMUM, and PONTUS--all of which were
eventually absorbed by the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC. Out of
Pergamum, the Romans formed the province of Asia, which included LYCIA,
Caria, Mysia, and Phrygia. For the later history of the area, see
BYZANTINE EMPIRE, SELJUKS, OTTOMAN EMPIRE, and TURKEY.
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
The
Byzantine Empire is the name given to the continuation of the Roman
Empire, which--converted to Christianity and using Greek as its
principal language--flourished in the eastern Mediterranean area for
more than 1,000 years until its fall in 1453. The name Byzantine is
derived from BYZANTIUM, the city which CONSTANTINE I made his new
capital and renamed Constantinople (now ISTANBUL, Turkey). The three
major periods of Byzantine history--Early, Middle, and Late--are
characterized by drastic changes in internal organization.
EARLY
PERIOD
The
Early Byzantine period (324-610) was highlighted by Constantine's
conversion to Christianity and the foundation of Constantinople,
Theodosius I's final division of the empire into eastern and western
parts, and Justinian I's successful efforts to reconquer the West. The
major foreign conflicts of the period were with the Persians under the
SASSANIANS in the east and the Germans in the west. Constantine and
his successors successfully withstood Persian attack, but the defeat
and death (363) of JULIAN THE APOSTATE caused the loss of large parts
of Armenia to the Persians. Conflict was renewed under JUSTINIAN I
(527-65) and his successors; the Byzantines repeatedly had to buy
peace, and the year 610 saw the Persians threatening to occupy the
eastern provinces. German pressure (c.375) on the Rhine and Danube
increased as the Huns drove the Germans westward. Early in the 5th
century, the Germans occupied most of the western half of the empire;
they took Italy in 476. Justinian regained North Africa and Italy, but
his successors yielded northern and central Italy to the LOMBARDS.
Internally, the
reforms of Constantine, who built on the major administrative changes
of his predecessor DIOCLETIAN, brought an end to the previous anarchy.
The person of the emperor was elevated to a semi-divine position and
surrounded by Eastern-style ceremonial, to insulate him from military
coups. At all levels, civil and military authorities were sharply
divided, to hinder potential rebels. An elaborate and huge bureaucracy
developed. Although exceptions occurred, subjects were bound to fixed
social-economic positions; peasants could not leave the land, nor
craftsmen their jobs. A sound currency and a money economy were
restored.
Constantine's
conversion to Christianity made it the most favored religion in the
state; after 380 it was the sole official religion. The state, however,
became deeply involved in religious disputes. Constantine was forced
to confront the heresy of ARIANISM, and only THEODOSIUS I (r.379-95)
was able to subdue the Arians. During the 5th and 6th centuries,
NESTORIANISM and MONOPHYSITISM disturbed religious peace. The
Nestorians were expelled, but efforts to suppress or reconcile the
Monophysites failed.
MIDDLE
PERIOD
The
Middle Byzantine period (610-1081) began with the triumph of HERACLIUS
over the Persians and his subsequent defeat by the Arabs. After 634,
Muslim ARABS seized Palestine, Syria, and Egypt (provinces largely
inhabited by Monophysites) and raided deep into Anatolia. LEO III (r.
717-41) beat them back from the gates of Constantinople, and BASIL I
(r. 867-86) started a campaign of reconquest that achieved
considerable success in the 10th century. Slavs and Bulgarians
meantime took possession of the Balkan peninsula. BASIL II (r.
976-1025) proved himself the greatest of Byzantine conquerors in
defeating Arabs and Bulgarians.
The
loss of the Monophysite provinces to the Arabs ended that religious
problem, but Leo III commenced a dispute about ICONOCLASM when he
attacked the veneration of images (726). Many monks were among those
who suffered death or other penalties at the hands of Leo's son,
Constantine V (r. 741-75), when iconoclasm reached its height. The
images were briefly restored under Irene (787) and finally under
Michael III in 843. The iconoclast rulers exacerbated relations with
the papacy. Disputes over theological formulas, religious usages, and
territorial jurisdiction led to a schism (867-870) under Patriarch
PHOTIUS. Increasing disagreements with the papacy culminated in the
Great SCHISM between the ORTHODOX CHURCH and Roman Catholicism in
1054.
Michael
III's successor, Basil, inaugurated the Macedonian period (867-1056).
Laws were codified by Basil I and LEO VI, new styles of church
architecture developed, and a literary renaissance occurred.
The
Arab and Bulgar invasions caused a perpetual state of military
emergency. In response, civil and military authority was unified in
the theme system. Each army unit, or theme, was settled on a specific
region (also called a theme), which was governed by its commander.
Soldiers received allotments of land, and their sons apparently became
free peasants. Because these free peasants, as taxpayers and soldiers,
were fundamental to the survival of the state, the 10th-century
emperors strove to defend them from the great landlords.
In
the 11th century, this effort to save the peasants failed, and the
throne became the prize in a struggle between the bureaucrats and the
generals (who were great landowners). Distracted by this struggle, the
emperors were unable to resist the SELJUKS, who conquered Anatolia
between 1048 and 1081.
LATE
PERIOD
The
triumph of the soldier-emperor ALEXIUS I COMNENUS in 1081 inaugurated
the Late Byzantine period. Alexius and his immediate successors beat
the Seljuk Turks back from the coasts of Anatolia, but were unable to
cope with aggressive western Europeans. In 1204 the Fourth CRUSADE
seized and brutally sacked the capital and established the Latin
Empire of Constantinople, while refugee Byzantines created an empire
at Nicaea, the despotate of Epirus and the Empire of Trebizond
(Trabzon). In 1261 the ruler of Nicaea, MICHAEL VIII PALAEOLOGUS,
regained Constantinople. The refounded Byzantine Empire had to face
threats from Westerners and from Turks. Gradually reduced in area, it
finally succumbed in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks, who made
Constantinople the capital of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. In this final period,
the landed aristocracy dominated all provincial and central
administrative positions of the Byzantine Empire. The peasantry was
reduced to a servile status. The army consisted of mercenaries and a "feudal"
levy based on government properties awarded to great landlords in
return for military service. Venetian, Pisan, and Genoese merchants
controlled Byzantine commerce. The emperors of the Palaeologan dynasty
repeatedly tried to reunify the Orthodox and Catholic churches in
return for Western aid against the Turks, but this effort proved
futile.
The
Byzantine Empire is notable for its ability to revive in times of
disaster (as is shown in the cases of Heraclius, Leo III, Basil I,
Alexius I, and Michael VIII), for its vigorous Greek culture, and for
its outstanding Christian art and architecture. C. M. Brand
SELJUKS
The
Seljuks were a group of nomadic Turkish warrior leaders from Central
Asia who established themselves in the Middle East during the 11th
century as guardians of the declining ABBASID caliphate, and after
1055 founded the Great Seljuk sultanate, an empire centered in Baghdad
and including Iran, Iraq, and Syria. They helped to prevent the
FATIMIDS of Egypt from making Shiite Islam dominant throughout the
Middle East and, in the 12th century, blocked inland expansion by the
Crusader states on the Syrian coast. Their defeat of the Byzantines at
the Battle of MANZIKERT (1071) opened the way for the Turkish
occupation of Anatolia.
Seljuk
power was at its zenith during the reigns of sultans ALP-ARSLAN
(1063-72) and MALIK SHAH (1072-92), who with their vizier NIZAM AL-MULK,
revived Sunnite Islamic administrative and religious institutions.
They developed armies of slaves (MAMELUKES) to replace the nomad
warriors, as well as an elaborate bureaucratic hierarchy that provided
the foundation for governmental administration in the Middle East
until modern times. The Seljuks revived and reinvigorated the
classical Islamic educational system, developing universities (madrasahs)
to train bureaucrats and religious officials.
After
Malik Shah's death, a decline in the quality of dynastic leadership
and division of their rule among military commanders and provincial
regents (atabegs) weakened the power of the Great Seljuks. The last of
the line died in battle against the KHWARIZM-SHAHS in 1194.
A
branch of the Seljuks established their own state in Anatolia (the
sultanate of Konya or Rum, survived until it was conquered by the
Mongols in 1243.
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
The
Ottoman Empire was a Muslim Turkish state that encompassed Anatolia,
southeastern Europe, and the Arab Middle East and North Africa from
the 14th to the early 20th century. It succeeded both the BYZANTINE
EMPIRE, whose capital, Constantinople (modern ISTANBUL), it made its
own in 1453, and the Arab CALIPHATE, whose mantle of descent from
Muhammad it claimed after conquest of Egypt in 1517. The Ottoman
Empire was finally broken up at the end of World War I, when its
heartland of Anatolia became the Republic of TURKEY.
EXPANSION
The
Ottoman Turks were descendants of Turkoman nomads who entered Anatolia
in the 11th century as mercenary soldiers of the SELJUKS. At the end
of the 13th century, OSMAN I (from whom the name Ottoman is derived)
asserted the independence of his small principality in north-western
Anatolia, which adjoined the decadent Byzantine Empire. Within a
century his dynasty had extended its domains into an empire stretching
from the Danube to the Euphrates. In Bosnia, Bulgaria, Greece, and
Serbia the conquered Christian princes were restored to their lands as
vassals, while the subjects were left free to follow their own
religions in return for payment of a special head tax.
The
empire was temporarily disrupted by the invasion of the Tatar
conqueror TIMUR, who defeated and captured the Ottoman sultan BAYEZID
I at the Battle of Ankara (1402). However, Mehmed I (1389?-1421), the
Restorer, succeeded in reuniting much of the empire, and it was
reconstituted by MURAD II and MEHMED II. In 1453, Mehmed II conquered
Constantinople, the last Byzantine stronghold. Both sultans developed
the devshirme system of recruiting young Christians for conversion to
Islam and service in the Ottoman army and administration; the
Christians in the army were organized into the elite infantry corps
called the JANISSARIES.
The
empire reached its peak in the 16th century. Sultan SELIM I (r.
1512-20) conquered Egypt and Syria, gained control of the Arabian
Peninsula, and beat back the Safavid rulers of Iran at the Battle of
Caldiran (1514). He was succeeded by SULEIMAN I (the Magnificent, r.
1520-66), who took Iraq, Hungary, and Albania and established Ottoman
naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. Suleiman codified and
institutionalized the classic structure of the Ottoman state and
society, making his dominions into one of the great powers of Europe.
INSTITUTIONS
Under
the structure formalized in the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire was
dominated by a small ruling class that achieved its power and wealth
as a result of the status of its members as slaves (kapikullari) of
the sultan. This elite group included both the older Turko-Islamic
aristocracy--descendants of the Turkoman principalities of Anatolia,
the Seljuks, and members of the Muslim bureaucracy and army of the
caliphate--and the newer devshirme class of Christian converts and
their descendants. The sultans played these two groups off against
each other to enforce standards of honesty and obedience. To ensure
that the sultan was the sole focus of loyalty, Mehmed II began the
practice of executing all brothers of the reigning sultan so that the
succession would fall, without question, to one of his sons.
The
functions of the ruling class were limited to exploiting the resources
of the empire, largely for its own benefit; expanding and defending
the state and maintaining order; and preserving the faith and practice
of Islam as well as the religions of all the subjects of the sultan.
For these purposes the class was organized into four administrative
institutions: that of the palace, which was in charge of housing,
supporting, and maintaining the sultan and making sure that the system
worked; and those of administration and finance, the military, and
culture and religion. The vast subject class was left to carry out all
other functions of state through autonomous religious communities
called millets--for the Jews, the Armenian Christians, the Greek
Orthodox Christians, and the Muslims--and through artisans' guilds and
popular mystic orders and confederations, which together formed a
substratum of popular society.
DECLINE
The
decline of the empire began late in the 16th century. It was caused by
a myriad of interdependent factors, among which the most important
were the triumph of the devshirme class, the flight of the Turko-Islamic
aristocracy, and degeneration in the ability and honesty both of the
sultans and of their ruling class. The devshirme divided into many
political parties that fought for power, manipulated sultans, and used
the government for their own benefit. Corruption, nepotism,
inefficiency, and misrule spread. The empire, however, survived for 3
centuries longer because Europe was unaware of the extent of its
weakness, and the mass of Ottoman subjects were protected from the
worst results of the decay by their millets and guilds. Starting in
the 17th century, moreover, a few members of the ruling class
temporarily remedied the abuses by forcefully restoring Ottoman
institutions and practices to the pattern in which they had operated
successfully in previous centuries. In the process they ruthlessly
executed the incompetent and the corrupt and confiscated their
properties. Chief among these traditionalist reformers were Sultan
Murad IV (r. 1623-40) and the KOPRULU family of grand viziers (chief
executive officers), who dominated the administration from 1656 to
1702.
The
empire experienced its first major defeat by Europeans in the Battle
of LEPANTO (1571), when its fleet was destroyed by a Christian
coalition. Nonetheless it recovered dominance of the eastern
Mediterranean, capturing Crete from the Venetians in 1669. In the east,
moreover, Murad IV reconquered (1638) part of Persia, which had
asserted its independence under Shah ABBAS I. This apparent military
revival encouraged Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha to attempt an
invasion of central Europe. Following its failure to take Vienna
(1683), however, the Ottoman army collapsed. Major territories were
lost to its European enemies in the ensuing war, which culminated in
the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699). During the 18th century, a series of
wars with Russia (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS) and Austria accelerated the
decline and loss of territory. At the same time large sections of the
provinces remaining under Ottoman control fell under the sway of
provincial notables, whose connection with the sultans was nominal.
REFORM ATTEMPTS
Sultan
SELIM III (r. 1789-1807) attempted to reform the Ottoman system by
destroying the Janissary corps and replacing it with the nizam-i jedid
(new order) army modeled after the new military institutions being
developed in the West. This attempt so angered the Janissaries and
others with a vested interest in the old ways that they overthrew him
and massacred most of the reform leaders. Defeats at the hands of
Russia and Austria, the success of national revolutions in Serbia and
Greece, and the rise of the powerful independent Ottoman governor of
Egypt, MUHAMMAD ALI, so discredited the Janissaries, however, that
Sultan MAHMUD II was able to massacre and destroy them in 1826.
Mahmud
then inaugurated a new series of modernistic reforms, which involved
the destruction of the traditional institutions and their replacement
with new ones imported from the West--and in all areas of Ottoman
life, not just the military. These reforms were continued and brought
to their culmination during the Tanzimat reform era (1839-76) and the
reign (1876-1909) of ABD AL-HAMID II. The scope of government was
extended and centralized as reforms were made in administration,
finance, education, justice, the economy, communications, and the army;
even the millets were forced to democratize and accept lay
participation in their governance.
Financial mismanagement and incompetence, along with national revolts
in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the French occupation of Algeria
and Tunisia, and the takeover by the British in Egypt and the Italians
in Libya, threatened to end the very existence of the empire, let
alone its reforms. By this time the Ottoman sultanate was known as the
"Sick Man of Europe," and European diplomacy focused on the so-called
EASTERN QUESTION--how to dispose of the Sick Man's territories without
upsetting the European balance of power. Abd al-Hamid II, however,
rescued the empire, at least temporarily, by reforming the Ottoman
financial system, manipulating the rivalries of the European powers,
and developing the pan-Islamic and pan-Turkic movements to undermine
the empires of his enemies. The sultan granted a constitution and
parliament in 1876, but he soon abandoned them and ruled
autocratically so as to achieve his objectives as rapidly and
efficiently as possible. He became so despotic that liberal opposition
arose under the leadership of the YOUNG TURKS, many of whom were
forced to flee to Europe to escape his police.
OVERTHROW
In 1908
a revolution led by the Young Turks forced Abd al-Hamid to restore the
parliament and constitution. After a few months of constitutional rule,
however, a counterrevolutionary effort to restore the sultan's
autocracy led the Young Turks to dethrone Abd al-Hamid completely in
1909. He was replaced by Mehmed V Rashid (r. 1909-18), who was only a
puppet of those controlling the government.
Rapid
modernization continued during the Young Turk era (1908-18), with
particular attention given to modernizing the cities, agriculture and
industry, and communications and also to the secularization of the
state and the emancipation of women. However, the Young Turk leader
Enver Pasha (1881-1922), who was virtual dictator from 1913, involved
the empire in World War I on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary.
The defeat of these Central Powers led to the breakup and foreign
occupation of the Ottoman Empire. The Turks accepted the resulting
independence of their Arab and Balkan provinces, but the attempt of
the victorious Allies to control the Anatolian territory left to the
Turks and to turn parts of it, as well as eastern Thrace, over to
other powers led to the Turkish war for independence (1918-23). Under
the leadership of Kemal ATATURK, the Turkish nationalists overturned
the postwar settlement embodied in the Treaty of Sevres (1920) and
established the Republic of Turkey, formally recognized by the Treaty
of Lausanne (see LAUSANNE, TREATY OF) in 1923.\
TURKEY (TÜRKIYE)
Turkey
is an independent republic occupying a region, partly in Europe and
partly in Asia, that has played a major role in world history as a
bridge connecting East and West. European Turkey, known as eastern
THRACE, is bounded on the north by the BLACK SEA and Bulgaria and on
the west by the AEGEAN SEA and Greece. It is separated from Asian
Turkey (ANATOLIA or Asia Minor) by the BOSPORUS, the Sea of MARMARA,
and the DARDANELLES Strait. Anatolia is bounded on the north by the
Black Sea; on the east by Georgia, Armenia, and Iran; on the south by
Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean Sea; and on the west by the Aegean
Sea.
Turkey
is one of the more developed Middle Eastern countries, and
industrialization is in progress. Tourism, stimulated by the fine
climate and the abundance of historic sites, such as TROY, PERGAMUM,
and EPHESUS, is beginning to gain importance. Modern Turkey was
founded on Oct. 29, 1923, as the successor of the Ottoman Empire.
LAND AND RESOURCES
Turkey
lies within the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt. More than 75% of the
land lies at elevations above 500 m (1,640 ft), and the average
elevation is 1,100 m (3,600 ft). Turkey is one of the most active
earthquake regions in the world. The Arabian, African, Eurasian Aegean,
and Turkish plates all converge in Turkish territory, resulting in
severe seismic and volcanic activity.
The
country may be divided into four physical regions: the central
Anatolian plateau and surrounding mountains, the eastern highlands,
the Aegean coastland, and Thrace. The central Anatolian plateau is
separated from the coastal lowlands by the Pontic Mountains in the
north and the TAURUS MOUNTAINS in the south. The Pontic Mountains
increase in height toward the east, where their highest peak, Kackar
Dagi (3,937 m/12,917 ft), is found. The Taurus Mountains rise to 3,734
m (12,251 ft) in the Ala Dag chain. Composed mainly of limestone, they
have caves, underground streams, and potholes. Small glaciers are
found in the eastern sections of both the Taurus and Pontic ranges.
The central plateau is composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded
troughs. Shallow salt lakes--Lake Tuz is the largest--and geologically
young volcanic features characterize the landscape.
The
eastern highlands are dotted with peaks reaching elevations of
3,000-4,500 m (10,000-15,000 ft) and surrounded by high lava-covered
plateaus. The highest of the peaks is Mount ARARAT (Agri Dagi; 5,122
m/16,804 ft), in the extreme east. Vast stretches of the highlands
consist of barren waste. Lake VAN is a large salt lake with
underground connections to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, whose
headwaters rise in the nearby mountains.
The
Aegean coastland is an area of elongated mountain ridges cut by steep
valleys. Thrace comprises a central plain of rolling terrain
surrounded by mountains of moderate height.
SOILS
Turkey
has numerous soil types. About 40% of the land, including the Black
Sea coast and most of the northeast, is covered by red and gray brown
podzols and by brown forest soils. The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts
are characterized by mountain soils (brown forest, terra rossa,
rendzina). Chestnut and desert soils are found in central Anatolia.
The southeast has rich chernozems and chestnut-type soils.
CLIMATE
Because
of the mountainous terrain and maritime influence, climates vary
greatly. The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts enjoy a 29 deg C (84 deg
F) mean temperature in July and a 9 deg C (48 deg F) mean in January.
Rainfall is concentrated in the winter; Antalya on the southern coast
receives an annual average of 991 mm (39 in). The Black Sea coast is
somewhat cooler, and the rainfall is heavier, averaging 2,438 mm (96
in). The northeast has warm summers but severe winters averaging -9
deg C (16 deg F). Precipitation occurs more evenly throughout the year,
and the snow cover lasts 120 days. The central plateau has hot, dry
summers averaging 23 deg C (73 deg F) and cold, moist winters, when
temperatures average below 0 deg C (32 deg F).
DRAINAGE
The
TIGRIS RIVER and the EUPHRATES RIVER originate in eastern Turkey
before flowing to the Persian Gulf. The Araks and Kurucay rivers flow
to the Caspian Sea; the Kizil and Sakarya to the Black Sea; the
Macestus to the Sea of Marmara; and the Gediz and the Buyukmenderes to
the Aegean. The Goksu, Seyhan, and Ceyhan rivers flow to the
Mediterranean. Most Turkish rivers are not navigable, having irregular,
shallow beds and seasonal depth changes.
VEGETATION AND ANIMAL LIFE
The
Black Sea coast is the most densely forested region in Turkey, with
both coniferous and deciduous trees. Much of the south, west, and
northwest is covered by Mediterranean vegetation of thick, scrubby
underbrush. The dry central plateau is steppe land, with short grasses,
bushes, and stunted willow trees. Wild animals include the wolf, fox,
bear, and wildcat. The water buffalo, camel, and Angora goat are
domesticated.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Production and
transport costs limit the importance of many minerals. Copper from
Ergani in the Diyarbakir region and chrome from Fethiye are mined for
export. The presence of coal near Eregli on the Black Sea and in
Thrace and of iron ore in the Sivas region has been important to the
industrialization effort. Petroleum, boron minerals, mercury, and
manganese are also found.
PEOPLE
The
people of Turkey are overwhelmingly TURKS (about 90%) and Sunni Muslim
(98%). About 3 million KURDS live in the eastern provinces, and
several hundred thousand Arabs inhabit the Hatay enclave adjacent to
Syria. The number of Greeks was dramatically reduced by the population
exchange between Greece and Turkey following the Treaty of Lausanne
(1923). About 25,000 Jews live primarily in Istanbul, Ankara, and
Izmir. The Greek Orthodox community is the largest Christian
denomination, followed by the Gregorian church. Most of the population
speak Turkish (see URAL-ALTAIC LANGUAGES), although minorities speak
Arabic and Kurdish.
More
than half of the population live in urban areas. ISTANBUL is the
cultural, industrial, and commercial center; ANKARA is the capital.
Other major cities are IZMIR, ADANA, Antakya (or ANTIOCH), KONYA,
EDIRNE, TRABZON, and BURSA. Large-scale migration to the cities since
mid-century has led to overcrowding. The birthrate and average life
expectancy are closer to the norm for a Middle Eastern country than
for a European country. The population density is highest in the
coastal regions, especially along the Black Sea.
EDUCATION
AND HEALTH
The
educational system of Turkey was modernized after the founding of the
republic as part of an effort to westernize Turkish society. Today
education is mostly public and free, about three-fourths of the
population is literate. Funds, teachers, and facilities are scant in
remote areas of the country. The University of Istanbul (1453), the
Aegean University (1955) at Izmir, and the Middle East Technical
University (1956) at Ankara are Turkey's largest institutions of
higher learning.
Medical
services are free to the poor. Although health service is improving,
rural areas suffer shortages of physicians and facilities; the infant
mortality rate is close to the average for an Asian country. Trachoma
and tuberculosis are the most prevalent communicable diseases.
THE ARTS
Although Islam dominated artistic expression under the Ottomans (see
ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE), Turkish culture since 1923 has been
imbued with the spirit of nationalism. Turkish literature has been
affected from both the East (chiefly Persia) and the West (mainly
France). Many writers focus on life in Turkish villages. Modern
painting and sculpture are of limited appeal; the people prefer folk
art and decorative crafts. Traditional Ottoman music continues to be
popular, although Western-style music is making inroads.
ECONOMIC
ACTIVITY
Turkey's economic development began in the mid-1920s under Kemal
ATATURK, first president of the Turkish republic, who attempted to
westernize and industrialize the economy. After World War II the
Marshall Plan and Turkish membership in the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) further encouraged development. The
per capita income, however, remained lower than in most industrialized
countries. Turkey receives significant financial aid from the European
Economic Community (EEC), to which it applied for membership in 1987.
The inflation rate was in the 60%-70% range in the early 1990s. Many
Turks work abroad, which helps to keep unemployment under control;
remittances from those workers provide a major source of foreign
exchange. Tourism is a rapidly growing industry; 4.5 million foreign
tourists visited Turkey in 1989, contributing $25 billion to the
economy.
MANUFACTURING AND ENERGY
Manufacturing
provides about 20% of the nation's GNP but employs only a small
percentage of the labor force. Food processing accounts for one-third
of all manufacturing, textiles and clothing for about 20%. Steel
production, particularly at Eregli and Iskenderun, is also important.
Other major industrial products include machinery and metal goods,
vehicles, petrochemicals, fertilizers, and pulp and paper. Iskenderun
is the terminus of an important oil pipeline from Iraq, but the
Turkish government stopped the flow of oil from Iraq through its
territory after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. Energy needs
remain low on a per capita basis despite a remarkable increase in
total national energy consumption. Nevertheless, the cost of imported
petroleum is a heavy burden, and an effort is being made to develop
other sources of power generation, especially by building
hydroelectric plants on the Euphrates River.
AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, AND FISHING
Agriculture accounts for less than 20% of the GNP, although it employs
well over half of the labor force. Just over a third of the land is
under cultivation, and productivity is low. Cereals are the principal
crop. Vegetables, grapes, sugar beets, potatoes, and oilseeds are also
grown, and cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry are raised. Overgrazing
is a problem in many parts of the country. Forests, covering more than
25% of the land, are protected by the state. Much of the wood harvest
is used for energy. The commercial fishing industry is being developed.
TRANSPORTATION
Domestic transportation, chiefly by road, is difficult in many areas
because of the rough terrain. Turkey is an important transit route
from Europe to the Middle East, and long stretches of railroads were
built by foreign powers through Turkish territory. The first bridge
across the Bosporus was completed in 1973; a second was built in the
1980s. Istanbul has the nation's major international airport and is
one of the world's major ports.
TRADE
Principal exports include cotton, fruits, nuts, tobacco, metals,
cereals, textiles and clothing, and livestock. Imports include
machinery, chemicals, crude oil, base metals, fertilizers, mineral
products, and vehicles. Middle Eastern nations are beginning to rival
Western European countries and the United States as Turkey's trading
partners.
GOVERNMENT
From
1973 to 1980 the country had a series of weak coalition governments
that were unable to handle increasingly serious economic problems and
political violence. The prime ministership alternated between Suleyman
Demirel of the moderate right Justice party and Bulent Ecevit, leader
of the moderate left Republican People's party. With the government
unable to resolve Turkey's difficulties, the military intervened in
1980, deposing Demirel in a bloodless coup led by Gen. Kenan EVREN. In
1982 the voters approved a new constitution, which established an
authoritarian presidential system and installed Evren as president for
a seven-year period. Demirel, Ecevit, and other former political
leaders were excluded from participation in politics for ten years.
Elections for a unicameral national assembly were held in November
1983. The ruling National Security Council was then dissolved and
Turgut Ozal, head of the newly formed conservative Motherland party,
became prime minister; he was elected to the presidency in 1989. When
Ozal's party lost its majority in the parliamentary elections of
October 1991, Suleyman Demirel, now head of the nationalist True Path
party, was called back to form a government. Turkey is divided into 73
provinces (ils), administered by governors (valis). Local governments
have the right to collect taxes for local use.
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